Language Switching and Speaking a Nondominant Language Challenge Executive Control: Preliminary Data for Novel Behavioral Markers of Alzheimer’s Risk in Spanish–English Bilinguals
Episode May 2024
My name is Dr. Scott Sperling and I’m grateful to be your host. In this podcast, student leaders in neuropsychology will discuss prominent, recently published studies with the authors who undertook the research, allowing for behind the scenes look into the development, implementation, analysis, and future implications of cutting edge. neuropsychology research.
Today, our student leader, Dr. Kritika Nayar, will be discussing an exciting paper entitled, Language Switching and Speaking a Non -Dominant Language Challenge Executive Control: Preliminary Data for Novel Behavioral Markers of Alzheimer’s Risk in Spanish-English Bilinguals, with the paper’s authors, Ms. Dahlia El -Garcia and Dr. Tamar H. Gollan.
Authors
Dalia Garcia
Tamar Gollan, PhD
Transcript
Dr. Scott Sperling
My name is Dr. Scott Sperling and I’m grateful to be your host. In this podcast, student leaders in neuropsychology will discuss prominent, recently published studies with the authors who undertook the research, allowing for behind the scenes look into the development, implementation, analysis, and future implications of cutting edge. neuropsychology research.
Today, our student leader, Dr. Kritika Nayar, will be discussing an exciting paper entitled, Language Switching and Speaking a Non -Dominant Language Challenge Executive Control: Preliminary Data for Novel Behavioral Markers of Alzheimer’s Risk in Spanish-English Bilinguals, with the paper’s authors, Ms. Dahlia El -Garcia and Dr. Tamar H. Gollan.
I’d like to now introduce our student leader and our esteemed authors.
Dr. Kritika Nayar is completing her postdoctoral fellowship at Rush University Medical Center in Pediatric Neuropsychology and Autism Research. She completed her doctoral degree in clinical psychology and her master’s degree in biostatistics from Northwestern University. Her research applies multi-method approaches to disentangle the neurocognitive mechanistic underpinnings of social language differences in autism, including the use of some psycholinguistic measures to document narrative skills in autism spectrum disorder and family members.
Welcome , Dr. Kritika Nayar:
Dr. Nayar
Thank you.
Dr. Scott Sperling:
And for our authors here, I’d like to have sort of a hearty welcome to Dalia Garcia, a doctoral student with clinical training in speech /language pathology in the Language and Communicative Disorders Joint Doctoral Program between San Diego State University and the University of California, San Diego. Her research focuses on how bilinguals control activation of their two languages and how aging and Alzheimer’s disease affect bilinguals ability to speak more than one language and to switch back and forth between languages. Her research is supported by an individual national research grant from the National Institute of Aging.
And also with us today is Dr. Tamara Gollan, a professor in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of California, San Diego. She received her PhD in clinical neuropsychology and cognitive psychology from the University of Arizona and a postdoc at the Center for Research in Language also at UCSD and a research and teaching fellowship at Pomona College. Dr. Gollan directs the laboratory on aging bilingualism, which investigates the joint consequences of bilingualism, aging, and Alzheimer’s disease for linguistic and cognitive processing. She’s known for the development of the frequency-like hypothesis, developing the Multilingual Naming Test, and her research examining the role of executive control in language switching.
Welcome, Ms. Garcia and Dr. Gollan:
Dr. Gollan:
Thank you for having us.
Ms. Garcia:
Great to be here.
Dr. Scott Sperling:
And I’ll now turn our discussion over to Dr. Nayar.
Dr. Nayar:
Thank you, Dr. Sperling. So in their paper, the authors examined if spoken responses from a structured interview and linguistic and non-linguistic task switching could serve as novel markers of Alzheimer’s disease risk in Spanish -English bilinguals.
So, for those who may not have already read your paper, can you briefly summarize the main findings of your study for us?
Ms. Garcia:
Of course. So the goal of this paper was to see if we could detect signs of Alzheimer’s disease in older Spanish -English bilinguals years before they would be diagnosed by looking at how they talk and how they switch languages. To do this, we did a detailed linguistic analysis of data we had from over 10 years ago, which included a language proficiency interview in both languages and two computer administered switching tasks.
Dr. Gollan:
So, this is something that was born out of the pandemic. Dahlia needed a project and we had these data and had never had time to look at them. And Dahlia had a background in linguistics and she had a background in linguistics and she had a background in linguistics and she had a background in linguistics and she had a background in linguistics and she had a background in linguistics and she had a background in
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and they were queued to name them. And neither– Spanish or English. And then for the color shape switching task, they were shown red or green circles or triangles and had to use one of four buttons on each trial based on a queue to judge either the color or the shape.
Garcia:
Yeah, and so in terms of predictions for the proficiency interviews, we predicted that the dominant language might be sent. to future cognitive decline because this is the recommended practice for assessment of bilinguals and most closely resembles the type of linguistic work in monolinguals that’s been done to detect Alzheimer’s disease, but on the other hand, bilinguals are just different. They can speak in a non -dominant language, which is harder and less automatic. So we thought that on the other hand, it might be possible that speaking a non -dominant language might be most sensitive to future cognitive decline because it is harder and less automatic.
Dr. Gollan:
Right, and then similar to what Dalia just said, we thought like the color -shaped task is much harder than the language switching task. It’s hard to get used to which number, which button to press, and people don’t generally judge shift between judging color and shape. It’s not naturalistic. So, we thought that might be the more sensitive task, right? It’s harder and language would be sheltered from decline because switching is something bilinguals do without even thinking about it. They do it every day in their daily lives. But what we found surprised us in a number of ways, first in the language interviews, there were actually very few differences, significant differences between bilinguals who stayed healthy for years after testing and the group that we call the Decliners group, which is bilinguals who were later diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease about, on average, four years later. So quite a big lag there. The only significant difference in how they talked was that the Decliners produced significantly more revisions, repetitions, and filled pauses, but only in their non-dominant language. None of the linguistic markers in the dominant language were sensitive to future cognitive decline.
Yes, and then going back to the switching results. We did find, you know, robust differences between groups in the state. tasks for both the language and the color shape, so when they were queued to switch from either indicating color to indicating shape or naming the number in English to Spanish, those that declined made more errors on those switching trials, but we didn’t find that the color shape task was more sensitive. If anything, it might have been the language switching task that was more sensitive to decline. But both, you know, this increase in production of repetitions, revisions, and filled pauses in the non -dominant language and increased switching errors in both kinds of tasks suggests that to control which language they speak, bilinguals need to rely on some of the same cognitive mechanisms that we use to plan and execute. all kinds of tasks, not just linguistic ones. So, in addition to having potentially useful clinical applications, we think that this study also provides some unique evidence about theories for bilingual language processing.
Dr. Nayar:
Very elegant study. We’re excited to ask some follow -up questions about that too. Thank you for summarizing that for everyone.
Yeah, thank you.
So, you know our first question is sort of broad. The standard convention in your psychology is to conduct assessments in patients native language as this is believed to yield more valid results. So, do you do the results of your study then make an argument for the contrary?
Garcia:
Definitely not. I don’t think so. So, I will just add a quick note that for our study, some people, their native language might be their first language, but they become dominant in a second one. So, a lot of the literature talks about we should be conducting assessments in the dominant language, whether it’s the first learned or not. But regardless, so the sensitivity of revisions, repetitions, and filled pauses in the non-dominant language was just one marker of cognitive decline. And cognitive testing and diagnosis involves lots of multiple tests and comparing between them to estimate probable cognitive changes. Our data also show that there’s a lot of variability and performance in the non -dominant language, which would introduce a lot of noise if we were to use this language for testing. So, if we were to test bilinguals in a non -dominant language in a non -dominant language and they perform… if their poor performance is due to cognitive impairment or because they’re trying to comprehend, answer questions, and do all these different tasks while operating in a language they’re less proficient in. And this just requires a lot more cognitive resources. I think it’s also important to remember that a lot of the current standardized tests are normed with monolinguals who only ever complete this type of testing in their only and by default strongest language. So we always do want to test bilinguals in their dominant language, but I will say that what our results do show is that we can leverage bilingualism to create more measures for this population specifically to detect cognitive decline. And having said that, one thing that is absolutely critical to say is that we really need to test bilinguals in both of their languages because we need to make sure that we know which language is dominant. Many bilinguals who report that they are about equally proficient or very good in both languages, if you test them with objective measures will actually perform much better in one of their two languages than they just didn’t really do. Sometimes, we even see bilinguals performing better in the language they said was their weaker language. So, if you don’t use an objective measure to test proficiency, you run the risk of missing completely the opportunity to maximize performance. And this can really interfere with the ability to reach an accurate diagnosis.
Dr. Nayar:
That is a fantastic point and actually builds really nicely for our next question, which is really what is, what effect, if any, do you believe factors related to bilingualism, such as age of English exposure, English language immersion and proficiency, and /or the time spent using English, had on language specific performance and findings in your study?
So, the short answer is we don’t know. We don’t know the age that you learn a language or learning a language late in life or never having been immersed. These are things that can reduce your proficiency level and conversely learning a language early or having lots spent lots of years immersed you become more proficient, but it doesn’t necessarily determine which language is dominant and we do think based on previous studies that that’s probably. more critical for this population. Language dominance is what seems to affect performance the most, but this doesn’t mean that age of acquisition or immersion don’t matter. We just didn’t have enough participants to look at this systematically in this tiny sample.
Thank you for that. I, you know, our next question was actually specific to the repetitions, revisions in the field pauses in particular. You know, there is some research out there to demonstrate how those are those revision markers or disfluency markers may be a marker of movement disorders such as fax tasks or Parkinson’s. How were you able to differentiate these markers as a marker of Alzheimer’s disease related cognitive decline versus potential movement related oral motor dysfunction?
Yes, so I do want to preface with that all our participants were cognitively normal at the time of testing based on extensive neurological and neuropsychological exams. They had not been diagnosed with any type of movement disorders, no apraxia of speech, nothing like that. And so in terms of these revisions, repetitions and filled pauses, when we speak especially unscripted and on the spot, we all have some disfluencies whether they’re repetitions, revisions or filled pauses. We can use them to buy extra time as we try to form them utterances. Dr. Gollan and I have already probably said plenty of “us” and “ums “ and we’ve restarted a few sentences. There you go. There I go again, right? So, but the repetitions that bilinguals made were for the most part whole word or multi -word repetitions which are considered typical disfluency, with an “I” by the American Speech Hearing Association, while people with more oral motor dysfunction may present with, for example, articulatory groping or trying to position their tongue to get it in that right spot for the sound they want to make, some sound prolongations and syllable repetitions, which we really didn’t see much of in our sample, or not at an alarming rate that would suggest any type of pathology like this. And so the disfluencies that our bilinguals produced didn’t really interfere with communication or detract from the main message that they were trying to get across in the way that these, that atypical disfluencies that would be associated with more the Parkinson’s and stuff like that, the way that those disfluencies do. So, there’s a lot of differences.
I think the way that they’re measured are gonna be very different as well. And I’m sure that that, you know, if there were any articulatory challenges, that could also impact transcription methods and kind of the quality of transcripts that you’re able to gather. So that kind of does lead to our next question, which was the oral proficiency interview is really such a new thing to use in this study and your use of salt to extract those psycholinguistic measures was very elegant. Of course, transcribing in salt conventions is very laborious. And so kind of looking forward, do you foresee opportunities to utilize automated transcription methods in conducting this work?
Dr. Gollan:
So, there’s certainly a lot of enthusiasm about this possibility right now in the field and in the literature, it’s starting to come out. And then with the advancement of large language models like chat GPT, it seems like, “Wow, this may be possible.” But there are really some major hurdles left to clear, and many of the papers that have come out and seem to be claiming, you know, such rosy prospects, kind of seem to downplay the amount of human correction that is currently needed to interpret spontaneous language samples. It took us a team of transcribers, bilingual transcribers a year of work to get this sample ready for analysis. And so I think the jury’s still out on that one.
Garcia:
Yeah, and then just to add, I think one thing to really take into account especially with bilinguals, is that a lot of these softwares really fall short when accurately transcribing language samples where the speaker has a thicker accent. And so bilinguals who learned their non-dominant language later in life are more likely to have these thick accents, even if they’re really highly proficient. And I think that’s a good point. A good tool to create a raw transcript. But like Dr. Gollan is saying, we would still need these to be checked and corrected by a human listener. And then just one other thing about the automatic transcribers is that they often don’t know how to segment utterances systematically or consistently, especially in unscripted speech where you do have these false starts, these repetitions, and these other types of disfluencies.
Dr. Nayar:
Amazing points, and definitely something that is very relevant, particularly given AI and machine learning approaches these days. We have one final question. Your study was comprised of a relatively small sample size, and we were curious to know what challenges did that present and how might follow -up studies further elucidate the relationship between your linguistic markers of risk and cognitive decline in bilinguals?
Dr. Gollan:
Yeah, so we felt that the results are worth talking about and presenting because it’s super exciting to see that you might be able to leverage skills that bilinguals have that are unique and might provide special tools to detect subtle cognitive changes years before the development of frank dementia or even early signs of it. But, we have to think of these findings as preliminary. The main thing really that’s needed is to repeat this kind of study with a much larger sample, more bilinguals, see if the results replicate.
Garcia:
Yeah, and then just to add on a little bit, I will say that one thing that made our study unique and that other studies should also take into consideration is that we had longer speech samples than is typical. A lot of studies do a picture description, whereas for us that was one -sixth of our language sample. And also taking into consideration that our bilinguals were interviewed and tested many years before diagnosis. So around four years. And so, we might get a stronger signal if we’re able to look at points in time closer to diagnosis. So maybe that would provide a clearer picture of language abilities declining.
Dr. Nayar:
Multiple are ones in the making here. (both laughing) Thank you so much for discussing your study and sharing your expertise in this very important area of research. I will now turn it back over to our host, Dr. Sperling.
Dr. Sperling:
Yeah, I’d also just like to echo the same sentiments. Really, on behalf of the Society for Clinical Neuropsychology and the Journal Neuropsychology, I really extend my gratitude to you, Dr. Nayar, for, you know, running this podcast for us and developing these really wonderful line of questions. And then obviously our sincere appreciations to Ms. Garcia and Dr. Gollan for taking the time to discuss this excellent research. It really is a fantastic line of research, a very rich and intriguing discussion here today. So, yeah, thank you for your time. And for the research itself, we’re really pushing the bounds of typical and really thinking about how we cannot get around bilingualism in our clinical work, but actually, as you said, take it seriously and use it to our advantage and really be thinking about how we can push both the field forward for the benefit of large segments of society that, again, we tend to not necessarily put into the target, if you will. So, thank you again for your participation and again, for this great research. And thank you and take care.
Dr. Gollan:
Thank you for having us. Great questions, we really enjoyed it.
Garcia:
Yes, thank you.
